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Forex Trading

Trading on insta forex

Happening crisis semi a few years ago begets a lot of work loss it (unemployment). Everyone tofu just how the importance for have income source that can be relied. This is that makes i am aware deep one the last year while crisis happen. At that time I was working as a Doctor for many years. Income that I step by step accept experiences decrease, happening a lot of PHK'S wave. Crisis touches medical practitioner and academic. I shall come out from situation as it. I do the best one for can come out from elaborate situation it, but no a lot of way out. The only way is with add man hour and regular lies in hospital at the cost leeway I with family. The other trick is with source income any other.

Since then I buy newspaper to look for work, ask to friend about part-time job and visitting severally website. But I don't find would be convenient for me, not many option in crisis. All work which is on the market, needing full-time work, having specialization, and is not a Doctor. At other side, newspaper also offer works with propertied tall one and in working that flexible at big firm. I hesitate to talk shop this kind of can advantage.

After I visit website InstaForex's firm, firm that give opportunity to do transactions (trading) on Forex's market . Initially I don't have picture and wages for work at this firm. With gleam sees information on website, I bethink this am network deep snare marketing and have to be left.
Some day while, I see banner that promote forex's exhibition international “ ShowFx World ”, one that will be arranged next week. There are many Broker firm that will be present, besides, severally disadakan's free meeting over there. Since I don't have plan at the early week, therefore I decide to go to there.

Seminar is focused at the bottom Trading Forex . In warm and friendly atmosphere we introduced by esensi of works at Forex. On the level, I don't get clear grasp of all principle result diForex's gains, but I benear really is certain that it is piquancy make me. Besides get new science, we can also get new acquaintance and communication with corporate delegation that provides to service trading. In this way I can find InstaForex's firm. Honestly I don't have doubt for working with this Broker firm. As Trader's obesity, I interest with lovely trading facility and top who can be enjoyed by firm Client. Between corporate top offers, there is review by best analysis team of Russia Internet, TV Forex, and can work by portal MT5. But one makes I interest be been seen of total deposit minimum, one that one par with $10. Client can get Welcome Bonus that is creditted into akun trading they to each deposit. And mengejutukan's one I, there are many contest that is evened out good for initiate and also for Trader Professional. Besides, each Client can become International Broker Club member InstaForex. Club card owner this will have severally exclusive gain.

A couple of days is at exhibition make I want to try Trading Forex . After make akun trading's demo, I coach and input step by step in this activity. I try to remember all say so upon seminar and I apply. akun's demo I can tell success, then I decide to make akun substantive. Then I open akun trading substantive, but since I have had a lot of demo deep experience akun, my capital as big as $100 can't cover my loss. But I don't stop. After experiences unsuccesfull in transacts, I continually try its to back disadvantages. Then I realise, this is my fault as Trader initiate. I will suffer a dead loss by undertaking transactions which there are many by look for profit some point. I start to study essential element in trading as loss's stop, one that self acting can close transactions. But it is not it just my fault, emotion is still restrain I in trading, one that can constrain us in result profit.

Then I analyse to gloss over what do I do to find its working out. I realise that it is not just because emotion and my psychology that beget loss in trading but also because of science I less in trading's strategy. Medical experience blessing me, not very hard divides to can balance emotion. I also cautious deep study material, assess is trading's principles and develops trading's tacticses myself.

Since then I make a abode to work at hospital and also do trading at Forex's market. Nun [of] time, I see profit in akun trading I increase, I become Trader that successful, pushing I to make medical practice as hobby and not as my main resource. After is into minds about I decide to leave my work as a Doctor. Now I am a Trader that successful, can work in a state which cozy. And more importantly, I can get joy from Trading Forex besides profit what does substansial.
I pleasantly that when I need, I come to InstaForex's Broker. Now I become a Trader, balance and calm in life I have pulih and I really enjoy this work, that don't hinge on anybody but self myself.

Brain

Intelligence racks brains to constitute expectation, wish and everybody the need. Smart brain basically really been propped by someone ability in maximize that brain job is alone, so brain can absorb various accepted information to be kept at memory racks brains. With maximize brain job, our matter maximize our brain capacity. Capacity and our brain performance actually more gigantic of solar system. Base research, for life man just vicinity 20% capacity rack brains those are utilized, 80% another were known. This enforce relevance indication among senility with maximum racks brains us. Seeing ability and brain capacity that admirably, fairly only if there is that statement no man which bovine. Folly constitutes thing that most implication by idleness. Its mean, person that perceives don't smart, actually don't bovine, but reducing maximizes performance and its brain ability.

If we study, optimism racks brains to get bearing with brain cell cell damage and otak 's function decrease that because of our own life pattern. E.g. we far between or even ignore things that actually will strengthen our recall as learned as, memorizing something, or increases frequency read and writing, and activity that gets stabilize character body power with logistic brain as dances, playing bagpipe or hobby activity that actually rejoice our brain, so condition pleasantly this gets to maximize our brain job.

Ability racks brains man will optimal if nerve work function rack brains most links with every consideration. Move, voice, think and respite constitute to form activity who can maximize brain job, at a swoop that normalize will work function rack brains. Its mean, poised living pattern and set constitute behaviour who can look after our brain. Synergy among stirred body by racks brains, fixing life style, and brings off emotion constitute trick treat brain with every consideration. It can look after optimation brain and fixs causative brain cell cell damage senility. In consequence, some ways simple following it can be done to maximize our brain job, and looks after our brain of senility.

I. Inure breakfast . Breakfast constitutes energy for our activity. With breakfast, our matter have that energy reserve fit's regular in gets activity. realy, there are many person trifles breakfast. Eventually, not eat alimentary in the morning causes descent of sugar rate in blood. It ensues on its reducing nutrition entry on racks brains that eventual end on brain setback. In consequence too, at our ramadan is advised to get wolfs down sahur. Its aim, that there is energy reserve to do activity up to in full day fasts. nutrition racks brains not only studying and memorize, but also food which that maximum will job nerve rack brains that works maximal ala. Besides breakfast, eat is penambah's food recall as drink of tea and grapple also really helps entry nutrition brain.

II. Avoid eating overdose . Controlling appetite with the importance for with controls emotion. Too much eating harden brain adit. Over a particular period, adit ossification racks brains usually our shepherd on go down tries a fall mental. Too much eating usually invite doze. Excessively gets asleep generally make frequent matter aliases disused brain holiday. Long time rack brains to become dull, there are many forgets and just can cause mental setback and senile. Are not incorrect if Rasulullah SAW teaches to eat while peckish and stop before is full since brimful belly filled alimentary will sap think, so work function brain not maximal.

III. Avoid Smoking . Besides perilous to heart, lung and troubles fertilitation, smoke also ensuing very blot up on our brain. Smoke to cause our brain can decrease and finally loses its function. Ih … one brake …. With decreases it brain and a loss brain function, we are Alzheimer's gristle (senile), evenless at coming old term. Smoking danger not act, well for active and also passive smoker. Big influential nicotine content to human body organ damages, including our brain.

IV. Avoid mengkonsumsi sugared overacting . Too much eat sugar can increase diseased share risk, as diabetes. To rack brains, too much entry sugar will block protein and nutrient absorption so nutrias' lack body and brain developing is troubled. Beneficent protein for intelligence and recall sharpness, so if entry is troubled, recall will ran down and insufficiently concentrates. Better, appropriate sugared consumption body requirement only, counterbalanced with alimentary nutrient content another. Something that over or overacting really inauspicious to physical health, psikis and our brain.

V. Beware and avoids air pollution . Now really tend difficulting to avoid air pollution because air pollution have cleared away to as almost every wilayak's angle country. But at least we shall can anticipate and reduce risk strike that pollution. Brain is sectioned all the much body absorb to air. If too long is at environmentally with full air pollution will make inefficient brain job. Its logic, we must perceive not cozy while are at environmentally get pollution, congested, odor etcetera. In condition as it, we will also be hard to optimize think and centralize attention because feel be not its cozy.

VI. Sleep and rest that adequately . Sleep is not a only pause body, but also pauses brain, notably serebral cortex. serebral is this cortex is a part rack brains primal or supreme mental function, one that is utilized to remember, visualitation and imagining, and assessing and gives something reason. If we often slight sleep will make brain cell cell a lot of one die exhaustion. Thrusting toiling brain without rest equals to kill a lot of our brain cell cell. Analitically, 24 hour just we not get asleep, therefore will emerge serious mental trouble phenomena, as fast as anger, memory loss, get hallucination and gets illusion. This constitute reaction of reverential brain exhaustion too its tire muscle or we physical because don't get asleep. If have begin, let alone maximize brain job, controlling even emotion will more be hard.

VII. Sleep darkly without head mantle . While gets asleep, better available smooth draught. Inure for minimalize purpose puts off the light that most composes natural darkness atmosphere. Darkness apparently can help to settle body and think exhaustion us, so melatonin's hormone production optimal. melatonin's hormone all to the good to look after body rhythm in sleeping arrangement, increase is body immunity, helping muscle relaxation, increase mood and removes think stress. Letting exposed head while gets asleep to equal absorbs important atmosphere entry for circulaationi to rack brains we. On the contrary, mantle carries the wind while sleep constitute breakneck bad wont. Carbondioksida that at production up to sleep that concentrated will, so brain most contaminates. Long time rack brains to become damages.

VIII. Don't think over hard while take ill . While takes ill, body is experiencing its ability decrease. Labor, think hard or thrust studying while body condition be be not fit will ascendant to energi our brain. If is thrust, job racks brains to become not effective and can wreck brain cell cell. In consequence, pro medical frequent suggests in order not to a lot of think while take ill. Its aim, so our brain job that don't optimal while take ill not very overburdened. Human body organ has weakness, so needs to be recovered and given by chance for rest (relaxation). Pray with concentrated constitutes excellent way which that growed can hand over and defenselees self, and soul and think calm, so can hasten healing process. spiritual's connection with Creators so ascendant to physical health and psikis is someone. Progressively its frequent bermunajat and gets surrender to her, our closer with Dzat That Mighty Cures. This closeness one will make our think gets positive, so our brain also rileks and quick pulih.

IX. Increasing stimulasi brain . Think is excellent way to coach brain job. Insufficiently thinks just make brain to decrease and finally don't function maximal. Continewously thinks that good happening while we make a abode to study. Religion shows promise that perfect and wise this about. Man is made compulsory strove for knowledge of cradle until tomb. Its mean, we are mandatory study along our age. Studying don't shall ever be assumed by school because a lot of source studies that simple and easy being tripped. Reading useful book, inure to read Al Qur ’ an everyday, and carries on religious service with concentrated constitute positive studying activity. Read can increase recall and concentration ability. Reading Al Qur ’ an constitute positive energy to rack brains and our heart because those are read are guidance and life manual that lead to energi thought and our life energy go to goodness road universalize and eternity. Brain that stimulation with positive energy will work positively and maximal, and will result positive thinkings, so senility and brain damage can be prevented.

X. Doing useful talk . Jaw, relate, teel or does to kept the ball rolling apparently have positive effect on racks brains. Intellectual gab usually take in lovely effect on job racks brains that triggered by good thought process. Sharing problem with person in point stimulation can also rack brains to think solution and is controlled since entry in point will make knowledge think getting rich. With many accept information that variably, memory racks brains also getting practiced, keep and channels that information by aimed. Brain can also saturated if just shut-in in dumbness and accepts chanted information. Utilizing teel ability we to accept and pass on useful thing good for brain and our social relation. Following social activity cans also be medium to do talk and useful activity, so socialization gain is gotten, even brain doesn't quick wreck.

XI. Write . Besides talk, brain can also optimize its work function by writes . Write expressive as writes diary or writing chronological as writes biography, and writing scientific will increase job energy racks brains. Read, think and writing constitute stimulus series racks brains that complete. While write, left brain and right following works, so balance brain function makes a abode to awake and our recall is sharpened for process IDE becomes to say and language that is poured in sentences at our writing. Now, media writes was progressively effloresce, write at blog can become one of alternative writes and sharing is information with other people. Besides our brain is sharpened, feel and our thinking is channelled can also broaden our social relation. Godwilling far deh of senile.

XII. Set sport . Sport importanting to look after body fitness and activates body organ functions. If among organ's coordination body is interlaced with every consideration, therefore asupmtion nutition also smooth, so not only body which fit, but also brain which “ cling ”. Now developed functioning sporting activity activate that brain work function tergindar of senility. GLO'S terminology (Power Coaches To Rack Brains) or ordinary was called by gymnastic brain. Fundamental of gymnastic this brain it assuages stress, afferent stretching and muscle, breathing place, and concentration concentration. We can also do demulcent sport as jogging, and chess. As it were is revealed An old hand at Geriatrics from Montefiore Medical Center, Dr Gary kennedy that works crossword, play chess or language learning can utilitarian to increase brain work function, so most dodge from demensia and Alzheimer.

XIII. Relaxation and Recreation . Recreation constitutes one of relaxation activity rack brains of fatigue. Recreation goes to a bed of down, or recreation by undertaking activity in around hobby can make rileks's brain. Fond feel and happy one is felt while this recreation that stimulation will job rack brains us, so fresher think and not head sick.

XIV. Pray with khusyuk . Recite, pray and pray with concentrated will increase concentration and increases ability centralize attention. Both of it constitute pillar altogether comes to fruition recall who will look after memory balance and activity brain function religious service as dzikrullah and pray constitutes physical and soul activity that sinking can a slave on defencelessness because available’s heart and think just to Is Mighty perfect. Spiritually, concentrated’s pray and dzikrullah gives concentration effect and heart relaxation also think we because us defenselees build and soul to Is Have us. All life problem, expectation and the need most passes on deep subjective vertical one in. Quieting soul, growed spirit and imbeds optimism will Mighty try a fall. Consciousness, spiritual's defencelessness and concentration this is that can look after brain of senility because we do ever remember That Dzat will what do create we.

Treat our brain with every consideration since basically, senility constitutes stemmed disease of reverential brain damage imbalance patterns to live we. As vital organ, one ought to racks brains to be looked after, energic with body, heart and soul us, and petted by its condition because brain really determine viability and our life quality as creature God SWT who has help perfect utmost.

There is person which choose to captain, another follows. Success is not mere take proceedings condition, flair, or even that intelligence is a selection.
Some people choose to lead, the others follow. The success is not merely the condition of things, natural talent, or even intellect it is an option.

Person make estimating to you, don't care if you like or not, and point that is given universalizes to you suit with point that you give unto self you own.

You are thinking up men that have fivefold production to be appealed you? Are they smarter fivefold? Are they working five energetic more times? If its answer don't, therefore question "What do they have what do I have no?" maybe implied deep your marrow. Prime factor that comes to pieces they with you are that they think five time be even greater.

you thinking of those who have revenue five fold instead of you's acre? they smarter five fold's acre? Do they work five times more enterprising? If the answer is not, then the question "I. What do they have that don't have?" may be implied in your mind. Main factors that separate them with you that they think is five times larger.
David J. Schwartz

How To optimize Brain

Person make estimating to you, don't care if you like or not, and point that is given universalizes to you suit with point that you give unto self you own.

STRINGS AS PARAMETERS

Introduction

The string can be passed to a function just as in a normal array. The following examples are used for printing the number of characters in the string:

Program

main ( ) {     char s1[6] = "abcde ";     int cnt = 0;     cnt = cnt_str(s1);       \\ A     printf( " total characters are %d \n", cnt); } int cnt_str(char s1[]);       \\ B {     int cn = 0;    while ( (cn < 6) && s1[cn]! = '\0')     cn++;     return(cn); }

Explanation

A function, cnt_str, calculates the number of characters in a string. The string is passed just as a character array. When the array is passed, the base address of the array is actually what gets passed.
Statement B is called to a function in which s1 is passed just as a normal array.

STRINGS AS PARAMETERS

Introduction

The string can be passed to a function just as in a normal array. The following examples are used for printing the number of characters in the string:

Program

main ( ) {     char s1[6] = "abcde ";     int cnt = 0;     cnt = cnt_str(s1);       \\ A     printf( " total characters are %d \n", cnt); } int cnt_str(char s1[]);       \\ B {     int cn = 0;    while ( (cn < 6) && s1[cn]! = '\0')     cn++;     return(cn); }

Explanation

A function, cnt_str, calculates the number of characters in a string. The string is passed just as a character array. When the array is passed, the base address of the array is actually what gets passed.
Statement B is called to a function in which s1 is passed just as a normal array.

STRING DEFINITION

Introduction

A string can be defined using a character array or a pointer to characters. Although the two definitions look similar, they are actually different.

Program

main ( ) {     char * s1 = "abcd";     \\ A     char s2[] = "efgh";      \\ B     printf( "%s %16lu \n, s1, s1);   \\ C     printf( "%s %16lu \n, s2, s2);    \\ D     s1 = s2;                   \\ E     printf( "%s %16lu \n, s1, s1);    \\ F     printf( "%s %16lu \n, s2, s2);    \\ G }

Explanation

Statement A declares s1 as a pointer to a character. When this definition is encountered, the compiler allocates space for the string abcd; the base address of the string is assigned to s1, which is the pointer variable.
Statement B declares s2 as a character array. The size of the array is 5 because of an additional null terminator in this case. Also, a space of 5 characters is allocated and the base address is given to s2, which is the pointer constant. During the lifetime of the program, we cannot change the value of s2.
The allocation for s1 is the allocation required by the pointer variable.
Statement C prints s1, using two place holders: %s and %16lu. Using %s, you will print the string as "abcd". Using %16lu you will print the base address of the string.
Statement E assigns a base address of s2 to s1; that is possible because s1 is a variable.

Point to Remember

When the string is declared as a character pointer, a space is allocated for the pointer variable, which holds the base address of the string.

Strings

STRINGS AS AN ARRAY OF CHARACTERS

Introduction

A string is defined as an array of characters. Strings are terminated by the special character ‘\o’; this is called a null parameter or null terminator. When you declare the string, you should ensure that you should have sufficient room for the null terminator. The null terminator has ASCII value 0.

Program

main ( ) {     char s1[6];      \\ A     char s2[6];     char ch;     int cnt = 0;     s1 = "Hello";      \\ B     printf ("%s \n", s1);      \\ C     s2 = {'H', 'e', 'l', 'l', 'o'}  \\ D     printf("%s \n", s2);               \\ E     while (  (ch = getchar() )! = '#' && (cnt < 6-1) )         \\ F         s1[cnt++] = ch;              \\ G     s1[cnt] = '\0';          \\ H }

Explanation

The size of the string is 6, which is the last element terminator, so you can use only 5 positions.
In statement B, the string "Hello" is assigned so that the array elements are
```
H  e  l  l  o  \0 
```
The null terminator is appended automatically.
Statement B puts the data in a string using standard array notation.
You can print a string using the placeholder %s; the string is printed until it encounters a null character.
The while loop in statement H inputs the string by reading character by character.
The function getchar returns the character.
Note that the counter is incremented up to 5 so as to accommodate the last null terminator.
The null terminator is put in place by statement H.
The while loop can be terminated before counter 5 by putting in the # character.

Points to Remember

A string is a character array with a null terminator at the end.
You can initialize the array using different methods.

WRITING A RECURSIVE FUNCTION

Introduction
A recursive function is a function that calls itself. Some problems can be easily solved by using recursion, such as when you are dividing a problem into sub- problems with similar natures. Note that recursion is a time-consuming solution that decreases the speed of execution because of stack overheads. In recursion, there is a function call and the number of such calls is large. In each call, data is pushed into the stack and when the call is over, the data is popped from the stack. These push and pop operations are time-consuming operations. If you have the choice of iteration or recursion, it is better to choose iteration because it does not involve stack overheads. You can use recursion only for programming convenience. A sample recursive program for calculating factorials follows.

Program
#include
int fact(int n);
main()
{
int k = 4,i;
i =fact(k); \\ A
printf("The value of i is %d\n",i);
}
int fact(int n)
{
if(n<=0) \\ B return(1); \\ C else return(n*fact(n-1)); \\ D } Explanation You can express factorials by using recursion as shown: fact (5) = 5 * fact (4) In general, fact (N) = N * fact (N-1) fact 5 is calculated as follows: fact (5) = 5 * fact (4) i.e. there is call to fact (4) \\ A fact (4) = 4 * fact (3) fact (3) = 3 * fact (2) fact (2) = 2 * fact (1) fact (1) = 1 * fact (0) fact (0) = 1 \\ B fact (1) = 1 * 1, that is the value of the fact(0) is substituted in 1. fact (2) = 2 * 1 = 2 fact (3) = 3 * 2 = 6 fact (4) = 4 * 6 = 24 fact (5) = 5 * 24 = 120 \\ C The operations from statements B to A are collectivelly called the winding phase, while the operations from B to C are called the unwinding phase. The winding phase should be the terminating point at some time because there is no call to function that is given by statement B; the value of the argument that equals 0 is the terminating condition. After the winding phase is over, the unwinding phase starts and finally the unwinding phase ends at statement C. In recursion, three entities are important: recursive expressions, recursive condition, and terminating condition. For example, fact ( N) = N * fact (N-1) N > 0
= 1 N = 0

N * fact (N-1) indicates a recursive expression.

N > 0 indicates a recursive condition.

N = 0 indicates a terminating condition.

You should note that the recursive expression is such that you will get a terminating condition after some time. Otherwise, the program enters into an infinite recursion and you will get a stack overflow error. Statement B indicates the terminating condition, that is, N = 0.

The condition N > 0 indicates a recursive condition that is specified by the else statement. The recursive expression is n * fact(n-1), as given by statement D.

Points to Remember
Recursion enables us to write a program in a natural way. The speed of a recursive program is slower because of stack overheads.

In a recursive program you have to specify recursive conditions, terminating conditions, and recursive expressions.

STACK OVERHEADS IN RECURSION

Introduction
If you analyze the address of local variables of the recursive function, you will get two important results: the depth of recursion and the stack overheads in recursion. Since local variables of the function are pushed into the stack when the function calls another function, by knowing the address of the variable in repetitive recursive call, you will determine how much information is pushed into the stack. For example, the stack could grow from top to bottom, and the local variable j gets the address 100 in the stack in the first column. Suppose stack overheads are 16 bytes; in the next call j will have the address 84, in the call after that it will get the address 16. That is a difference of 16 bytes. The following program uses the same principle: the difference of the address in consecutive calls is the stack overhead.

Program
#include
int fact(int n);
long old=0; \\E
long current=0; \\F
main()
{
int k = 4,i;
long diff;
i =fact(k);
printf("The value of i is %d\n",i);
diff = old-current;
printf("stack overheads are %16lu\n",diff);
}
int fact(int n)
}
int j;
static int m=0;
if(m==0) old =(long) &j; \\A
if(m==1) current =(long) &j; \\B
m++; \\C
printf("the address of j and m is %16lu %16lu\n",&j,&m); \\D
if(n<=0)
return(1);
else
return(n*fact(n-1));
}

Explanation
The program calculates factorials just as the previous program.

The variable to be analyzed is the local variable j, which is the automatic variable. It gets its location in the stack.

The static variable m is used to track the number of recursive calls. Note that the static variables are stored in memory locations known as data segments, and are not stored in stack. Global variables such as old and current are also stored in data segments.

The program usually has a three-segment text: first, storing program instructions or program code, then the data segment for storing global and static variables, and then the stack segment for storing automatic variables.

During the first call, m is 0 and the value of j is assigned to the global varable old. The value of m is incremented.

In the next call, m is 1 and the value of j is stored in current.

Note that the addresses of j are stored in long variables of type castings.

old and current store the address of j in consecutive calls, and the difference between them gives the stack overheads.

You can also check the address of j and check how the allocation is done in the stack and how the stack grows.

Note You can also check whether the address of m is constant.

Points to Remember
The recursive program has a stack overhead.

You can calculate stack overheads by analyzing the addresses of local variables.

Recursion

RECURSION

Introduction

You can express most of the problems in the following program by using recursion. We represent the function add by using recursion.

Program

#include  int add(int pk,int pm); main() {     int k ,i,m;     m=2;     k=3;     i=add(k,m);.     printf("The value of addition is %d\n",i); } int add(int pk,int pm) {     if(pm==0) return(pk);          \\ A     else return(1+add(pk,pm-1));   \\ B }

Explanation

The add function is recursive as follows:

add (x, y) = 1 + add(x, y-1)      y > 0        = x                   y = 0 for example,     add(3, 2) = 1 + add(3, 4)     add(3, 1) = 1 + add(3, 0)     add(3, 0) = 3     add(3, 1) = 1+3 = 4     add(3, 2) = 1+4 = 5

The recursive expression is 1+add(pk, pm-1). The terminating condition is pm = 0 and the recursive condition is pm > 0.

Memory Allocation

DYNAMIC MEMORY ALLOCATIONS

Introduction

You can use an array when you want to process data of the same data type and you know the size of the data. Sometimes you may want to process the data but you don't know what the size of the data is. An example of this is when you are reading from a file or keyboard and you want to process the values. In such a case, an array is not useful because you don't know what the dimension of the array should be. C has the facility of dynamic memory allocations. Using this, you can allocate the memory for your storage. The allocation is done at runtime. When your work is over, you can deallocate the memory. The allocation of memory is done using three functions: malloc, relloc, and calloc. The functions return the pointers to void, so it can be typecast to any data type, thus making the functions generic. These functions take the input as the size of memory requirement.

Program

#include  #include  main() {     int *base;        \\ A     int i;     int cnt=0;     int sum=0;     printf("how many integers you have to store \n");     scanf("%d",&cnt);    \\ B     base = (int *)malloc(cnt * sizeof(int));     \\ C     printf("the base of allocation is %16lu \n",base);   \\ D     if(!base)  \\ E         printf("unable to allocate size \n");     else     {         for(int j=0;j

Explanation

This program demonstrates the use of dynamic memory allocation for processing n integers where n is not defined at compilation time, but the user instead specifies the number of integers to be processed.
The processing adds 5 to the value of each integer.
Statement B reads how many integers you have to process.
Statement C allocates memory for the required integers by using the function malloc.
malloc takes the size in bytes as input.
The size of the operator returns how many bytes can be occupied by one unit of the specified data type. The size of int returns two bytes. If you give the value cnt as 10 then it will allocate 20 bytes.
malloc returns the pointer to void, which is typecast as a pointer to an integer. The value starts at the address of the memory from where allocations are done. The value is stored in the variable base, which is declared at statement A. If memory allocations cannot be done, the base will get the value 0, which can be tested using an if statement. The for loop F puts a value of 5 in the allocated memory. Note that the first value is stored in the location specified by the base and the next value is stored according to base +j. If the base is 100 and j is 1 then the value of base + 1 is 102, according to pointer arithmetic, and not 101, because this is a pointer to an integer and an integer occupies two bytes. You can retreive the value by using a pointer to an integer as specified by the for loop in statement G. After your work is over, you can return the memory using the function free. free takes a pointer to storage as input.
You can again allocate more or less memory by using the function malloc. You can again allocate memory without deallocating previous memory as given by statement I. You can allocate the memory similarly to malloc by using the function calloc. calloc takes two arguments: total number of data and the size of each data.

Points to Remember

You can allocate memory at runtime by using the function malloc. malloc allocates memory specified using an argument in terms of bytes, and returns the pointer to storage from where the memory is allocated. You can deallocate the memory by using the function free.

The prototypes of the function are available in the hidden files malloc.h.

FURTHER SCOPE OF VARIABLES

Introduction

In C, you can define the counter in the for loop itself; the counter has scope up to the end of the for loop.

Program

#include  main() {     int k = 10;      }        for(int  i=0;i<2;i++)\\ A        {      \\ B               printf("value of i is %d\n",i);    \\ C        }      \\ D     {     printf("the value of i is %d\n",i);     \\ E }

Explanation

The counter variable i is defined at statement A.
The scope of the for loop is up to statement D, which is the end of the for loop for statement B.
If you do not comment out statement E, you will get an error, because you cannot refer i in the outside block.

Point to Remember

You can define counter variable inside the for loop.

SCOPE OF VARIABLES

Introduction

In C you can define a variable in the block. The blocks are marked using { and } braces. The blocks can also be defined using the for statement. The scope of the variable is in the block in which it is declared, meaning that you can use that variable anywhere in the block. Even if some block is declared in that block, you can use that variable. When the variable is referred in the block and if it can be resolved using two definitions, then the nearest definition has more precedence. So the variable is interpreted according to the nearest definition. Even if the two definitions define two different data types for variables, they are accepted.

Program

#include  main() {      \\ Block 1     int i = 10;      \\ A      {         \\ Block 2         int i = 0;             \\ B         for( i=0;i<2;i++)   \\ C         {                printf("value of i is %d\n",i);         }      \\ End of block 2     }     printf("the value of i is %d\n",i);   \\ D }   \\ End of block 1

Explanation

The statement block 1 defines the start of block 1.
The statement ‘end of block 1’ defines the end of block 1.
Statement A defines variable i which has the scope in the entire block 1.
The statement block 2 defines the start of block 2.
The statement ‘end of block 2’ defines the end of block 2.
Statement B defines variable i which is entirely in block 2.
The for loop refers i, which can be resolved using two definitions: statement A and statement B.
Since the definition of statement B is nearest, the variable is referred using that definition, so the for loop modifies the value of i at statement B.
Variable i at statement A and variable i at statement B are two independent variables even though they have the same name. Statement D is outside block 2, so it prints the value of variable i in block 1.

Points to Remember

In C, you can define variables in the block, which is demarcated by using { and } braces. The variable has the scope inside the block in which it is declared.
When the variable is resolved using two definitions, the nearest definition has more precedence.

REGISTER VARIABLES

Introduction
When you want to refer a variable, many times you can allocate fast memory in the form of a register to that variable. For variables such as loop counters, register allocation is done. The processor has memory in the form of register for its temporary storage. The access time of the register is much less than main memory. That is the reason that register allocation provides more speed. But the processor has a limited number of registers. So the register declaration acts as a directive; it does not guarantee the allocation of a register for storing value of that variable.

Program

#include
main()
{
register int i = 0; \\ A

for( i=0;i<2;i++)
{
printf("value of i is %d\n",i);
}
}

Explanation
Here the register allocation directive is given for variable i. During execution, i will be allocated a register if it is available; otherwise, i will receive normal memory allocations.

You can use a register directive only for variables of the automatic storage class, not for global variables.

Generally, you can use register storage for int or char data types.

Note You cannot use register allocation for global variables because memory is allocated to the global variable at the beginning of the program execution. At that time, it is not certain which function is invoked and which register is used. Function code may use the register internally, but it also has access to a global variable, which might also use the same register. This leads to contradiction, so global register variables are not allowed.

Points to Remember
Register allocation is done for faster access, generally for loop counters.

You cannot declare global register variables.

EXTERNAL REFERENCES

Introduction

In collaborative software development it is common for multiple users to write programs in different files. For example, one user implements function f1, a second user implements function f2, while a third user implements the main function. C has a provision to compile programs even if function or variable implementation is not available. In such cases, the program is compiled but it is not yet fit for execution. The program is not executable until all the references in the file are available.

Program

\\ Program in file externa1.c  #include                  \\ A #include  \\ B extern int i;                            \\ C main() {     i =0;                                            \\ D     printf("value of i %d\n",i); }  \\ Program in file f1.cpp  int i =7;                                       \\ E

Explanation

Here the program is written in two files: extern1.c and f1.cpp. The file extern1.c has the main and reference of variable i.
The file f1.cpp has the declaration of i.
In the file extern.c there is a reference of i so the compiler should know the data type of i. This is done using the extern definition by statement C. Extern means that the variable or function is implemented elsewhere but is referred to in the current file.
Statement D refers to i.
The definition of i is given in the file f1.cpp, as given by statement E.
In the absence of an include directive in statement B, you can still compile the file; it will give no errors. Such a file is called an object file. It is not fit for execution because the reference of i is not resolved.
When you write statement B the reference of i is re-sorted and the executable file can be made.

Points to Remember

Extern definition is used when you have to refer a function or variable that is implemented elsewhere or it will be implemented later on.
When all the references are resolved then only the executable file is made.

Storage of Variables

STORAGE
Introduction
In the variable declaration you can also define lifetime or storage duration of the variable. Lifetime indicates the length of time the variable value is guaranteed during execution. For example, if the variable is defined inside the function, its value is kept until the function executes. After completion of the function, the storage allocated for the variable is freed.

Program
#include
int g = 10; \\ A
main()
{
int i =0; \\ B
void f1(); \\ C
f1(); \\ D
printf(" after first call \n");
f1(); \\ E
printf("after second call \n");
f1(); \\ F
printf("after third call \n");

}
void f1()
{
static int k=0; \\ G
int j = 10; \\ H
printf("value of k %d j %d",k,j);
k=k+10;
}

Explanation
Variables in C language can have automatic or static lifetimes. Automatic means the variable is in existence until the function in which it is defined executes; static means the variable is retained until the program executes.

The variable that is defined outside the function, such as g in statement A, is called a global variable because it is accessible from all the functions. These global variables have static lifetimes, that is, variable return throughout the program execution. The value of the variable, as updated from one function, affects another function that refers to that variable. It means that the updating in this variable is visible to all functions.

Variables such as i, defined in main, or j, defined in f1, are of the automatic type; i exists until main is completed and j exists until f1 is completed.

You can define the lifetime of a local variable in a function as given in statement G. The variable k has a static lifetime; its value is returned throughout the execution of the program.

The function f1 increments the value of k by 10 and prints the values of j and k.

When you call the function for the first time using statement D, k is printed as 0, j is printed as 10, k is incremented to 10, the space of j is reallocated, and j ceases to exist.

When you call the function the second time, it will give 10 (the previous value of k) because k is a static variable. There are reallocations for j so j is printed as 10.

When you call the function the third time, j is still printed as 10.

Points to Remember
The variables in C can have static or automatic lifetimes.

When a variable has a static lifetime, memory is allocated at the beginning of the program execution and it is reallocated only after the program terminates.

When a variable has an automatic lifetime, the memory is allocated to the variable when the function is called and it is deallocated once the function completes its execution.

Global variables have static lifetimes.

By default, local variables have automatic lifetimes.

To make a local variable static, use the storage-class specifier.

CALLING FUNCTION

Introduction

When a function is written before main it can be called in the body of main. If it is written after main then in the declaration of main you have to write the prototype of the function. The prototype can also be written as a global declaration.

Program

Case 1: #include  main ( ) {     int i;     void (int *k)         // D      i = 0;     printf (" The value of i before call %d \n", i);     f1 (&i);         // A     printf (" The value of i after call %d \n", i); } void (int *k)            // B {     *k = *k + 10;        // C }  Case 2:  #include  void (int *k)            // B {     *k = *k + 10;        // C }  main ( ) {     int i;     i = 0;     printf (" The value of i before call %d \n", i);     f1 (&i);         // A     printf (" The value of i after call %d \n", i); }  Case 3: #include  void f1(int *k)                  // B {     *k = *k + 10;        // C } . main ( ) {     int i;     i = 0; printf ("The value of i before call %d \n", i);     f1 (&i);         // A printf ("The value of i after call %d \n", i); }

Explanation

In Case 1, the function is written after main, so you have to write the prototype definition in main as given in statement D.
In Case 2, the function is written above the function main, so during the compilation of main the reference of function f1 is resolved. So it is not necessary to write the prototype definition in main.
In Case 3, the prototype is written as a global declaration. So, during the compilation of main, all the function information is known.

SYNTAX OF FUNCTION DEFINITION

Introduction

When specifying the function, you have to specify the return type, function name, parameter, list, and function body. Within the function body, you can have local definition and return statements.

Program/Example

The general format of a function is

       {           executable statements;      Return (expression); }  For example, int f1 (int j, float f) {     int k;     k = l;     return (k); }

Explanation

A function returns a value of the type that is specified by the return type. If you don't specify a written type, it is assumed that it returns an int value.
When the function does not return a value, you have to specify the return data type as void. When the function returns void, you may not write return in the body or you can write the return statement as return; .
All functions must be named.
You can specify parameters in the parameter list, separated by commas. While specifying the parameters, you have to specify the parameter data type and parameter name.
If you don't specify parameters, then you can specify only parentheses as shown here:
```
int f1( ) 
```
When you want to use variables only for the function then you can declare them just as in main.
A function returns a value to the caller using the return statement. You may have multiple return statements and the return expression should evaluate to a value that is compatible with the return data type.
A function returns to the caller after executing the first return statement it encounters during execution.
A call to a function should match the definition of the function.
The order of parameters in the call is important because the actual parameter value is copied to the formal parameter value according to the order. It means that the first argument in the call is copied to the first parameter, the second argument is copied to the second parameter, etc.
When you are using whole numbers as parameters, it is better to declare them by using the data type int. Because all your lower data types' actual parameters can be used for passing the value, your function can be useful for multiple data types.
When you are using real numbers as parameters, it is better to declare them as double so that the function can be used for both the float and double data types.

Points to Remember

While specifying the function you have to specify five main functions: written type, function name, parameter, list, function body and return statement.
Function name and function body are necessary, while the others are optional.

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